Analysis
of Pericles: Funeral Oration
Though
the exact words of Pericles' famous and influential Funeral Oration
during the Autumn of 430 B.C are unknown, it's purpose, meaning, and
eloquence was captured by his good friend Thucydides. Speeches such
as Pericles' were traditionally given annually to honor the many who
fell during Athens' many wars and campaigns against other countries.
Though many Athenians were training in public speaking and oration,
it must be emphasized that Pericles' speech held a great degree of
weight given the current war against the Peloponnesians and Pericles'
status as General (and henceforth leader during wartime) of the
City-State of Athens.
Before
reading Pericles' speech, it is crucial that one understands who
Pericles was, and what he meant to Athens. Athenian statesmen were
extremely well educated in all fields, no matter what position they
held in the city, meaning that though he was serving in the military
as a general, Pericles was well versed and educated in politics,
societal matters, arts, drama, and culture. Though such a broad
education was common amongst Athenian men, Pericles was said to excel
compared to most such that Thucydides referred to him as “The first
citizen of Athens.”
Defining
accomplishments in Pericles' career as a Statesman include
ostracizing (exiling) rich political opponent Cimon and eventually
winning him over, ruling Athens for thirty years, gathering the funds
to beautify the Acropolis and Parthenon, and of course the monumental
speech about to be analyzed. The speech was his last great work, as
shortly afterward he lost his power, served in the military, and died
of both depression at seeing his sons and wife perish, and the
plague.
Pericles
had two lovers in his time, the first's name is unknown, but it is
known that he divorced her and offered her to another man. During
their time together they had two sons named Paralus and Xanthippus,
both of whom died of the plague shortly before Pericles did. It is
known, however, that the second was named Aspasia of Miletus. He took
her to live with him as a mistress though they were never formally
married, a decision which damaged Pericles' reputation greatly given
his support of a law which deemed that children without two Athenian
parents could not be granted citizenship in Athens. Towards the end
of his life he had this law changed for the sake of his third and
final son (with Aspasia), Pericles the Younger.
The
Funeral Oration was an annual event given to commemorate all of those
who had died throughout the year in service of the Athenian military.
Though not included with Thucydides' translation of Pericles'
particular speech, a list of all the fallen was usually recited as a
part of the speech, and the bodies of the fallen were cleaned and put
on display around a massive memorial to fallen Athenians before
burial. Though usually a mournful or lamenting speech, Pericles broke
the mold and attempted to use the speech to win the good graces of
the people by promoting his personal values and those of Athenian
society, tucked in between his memorial of the soldiers and
degradation of his enemies. The move worked, after Pericles lost his
power he was reinstated as commander of the military for a year
before death.
Pericles'
Funeral Oration can be compared to several more modern speeches, most
notably Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. Both of them heavily
promote a sense of nationalism in the surviving listeners, both
commend the brave sacrifices of soldiers living and dead, and both
invoke a deep sense of sorrow while simultaneously setting up
feelings of national pride and faith in the societies and audiences
they were meant for. Though the speeches are not outlined in the same
way, they have much in common and it's very possible that Pericles
was an inspiration for Lincoln.
Before
actually critiquing the speech, it must be noted that crediting
Pericles himself with any actual figures of speech seems unfair as
the best “translations” we have actually interpretations of the
speech derived from the memory of Thucydides, written in such a way
that the main points were all communicated, and finally translated
into English several times by separate linguists. Though strong
themes and meanings concerning the building of Ethos, Pathos, and
Logos (which will be the main focus of this critique) can likely be
attributed to Pericles, instances of eloquence and enchanting
wordplay likely fall to Thucydides. This isn't to say that Pericles
was not capable of wordplay as an accomplished politician and
supporter of literature, just that the manuscript used today is
Thucydides' interpretation of the speech.
Pericles
opens his speech with stoicism and respect, honoring the ancestors of
Athens. "I
shall begin with our ancestors,” he begins, “it is both just and
proper that they should have the honour of the first mention on an
occasion like the present. They dwelt in the country without break in
the succession from generation to generation, and handed it down free
to the present time by their valour.” (Par. 2) In mentioning the
ancestors of the Athenians, Pericles builds strong ethos with his
audience. The Athenians were a humble society considering their
status as the most civilized society on Earth at the time, especially
when compared to their neighbors and enemies such as the Spartans,
and they were very respectful towards those who had built, fought
for, and won the city they lived in.
One
way of looking at Pericles' ancestor reference could be as a build up
to his next point, the role Athens plays to the rest of Greece.
Perhaps he meant to reference the development of the Athenian
government and the role the ancestors served in creating it.
Regardless, his next point is just that: Athens is a great and noble
city which serves as a template or inspiration for all others as the
first true democracy.
"Our
constitution does not copy the laws of neighbouring states; we are
rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves. Its
administration favours the many instead of the few; this is why it is
called a democracy. If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice
to all in their private differences; if no social standing,
advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class
considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again
does poverty bar the way, if a man is able to serve the state, he is
not hindered by the obscurity of his condition.” (Par.
3)
This
is not all that Pericles praises, he goes on to praise the might and
skill of the Athenian army and navy. He speaks of how open and free
they are, how accepting of foreigners they can be, and how in spite
of their easygoing, pleasure centered lifestyle, they maintain the
strongest military in Greece. He talks about how the Athenians are
feared across the land, and how enemies exaggerate their power when
they fall to Athens, and exaggerate more so when Athens falls to
increase their own reputation. Athens, is a nutshell, was difficult
to contend with. In this paragraph, towards the end, Thucydides
employs slight parallelism when Pericles speaks of Athens' reputation
amongst other armies, and the Athenian spirit which drives them.
Pericles
segways away from the military now, heading for Athenian character
and personal ability. “In generosity we are equally singular,
acquiring our friends by conferring, not by receiving, favours.”
(Par. 6) The claimed kind, favor oriented nature of Athens
highlighted here must have been a point of pride for the people. It
certainly contrasts against the stark, militaristic nature of the
Spartans and the indulgent Persian Empire. This line surely earned
praise from Pericles' audience, not simply because of his Athenian
audience, but the honor it gave to the dead Athenian soldiers. The
line is not meant to apply to the listeners exclusively, but the dead
soldiers as well earning him credibility with their families and
friends.
At
this point Pericles concludes, for the most part, his glorification
of Athenian culture. "In short, I say that as a city we are the
school of Hellas (Greece), while I doubt if the world can produce a
man who, where he has only himself to depend upon, is equal to so
many emergencies, and graced by so happy a versatility, as the
Athenian. And that this is no mere boast thrown out for the occasion,
but plain matter of fact, the power of the state acquired by these
habits proves.” (Par. 7) In English it may seem as though assonance
is being used here, but this is likely simply a product of the
translation and not an intentional affect on Pericles or Thucydides'
parts. What it is, however, is a deft stab at Aristotle's three
appeals, giving purpose and meaning to Pericles' recent onslaught of
compliments. It's easy to imagine Pericles' voice rising
passionately, starting with “And that this...” and ending on a
very high note with extra emphasis on the word “proves,” pausing
for a moment to allow listeners to nod appreciatively, clap, or
simply contemplate his words. In addition, he ties all of his
compliments together as if they were all one logical argument
explaining Athenian superiority. His final word on the topic was not,
as he pointed out, a simple boast. He proved it with all of his
speech so far. Finally, Pericles holds authority and credibility in
Athens as a general. If there is anyone who should be praising
Athens, it is he.
Finally
he gets to the point of the speech: paying tribute to his fallen
soldiers. As a Greek living in Athens, Pericles is not one to avoid
dramatism, rather he embraces it fully as would be expected of him.
Lines such as “the Athens that I have celebrated is only what the
heroism of these and their like have made her,” and “none of
these [soldiers] allowed either wealth with its prospect of future
enjoyment to unnerve his spirit, or poverty with its hope of a day of
freedom and riches to tempt him to shrink from danger.” (Par. 8)
The last line shows parallelism once again (on Thucydides part, of
course), making the speech easy to understand, allowing the audience
to digest the content more easily.
Pericles
chooses to end his speech on an unexpected note, however. He does not
mourn the fallen soldiers, not does he offer condolences to their
families, as he states in the fourth to last paragraph. The lost
lives are not something to be mourned, he says, as men can
potentially die at any point in time. “Fortunate
indeed are they who draw for their lot a death so glorious as that
which has caused your mourning, and to whom life has been so exactly
measured as to terminate in the happiness in which it has been
passed.” (Par. 9) All men are going to die anyway, he says in a
nutshell, we should count ourselves fortunate that these men chose to
die in such a way as to make a sacrifice for their city and people.
Instead Pericles offers them comfort in the fact that their lives
were not lost in vain as were so many heart attack victims,
drunkards, accidental fall victims, and executed criminals. This is
what a memorial speech is meant to be: The fallen soldiers chose to
die as heroes, and should be honored for it.
As
many great memorial speeches do (could it be that Pericles himself
started this tradition?) a word of encouragement is offered to the
survivors and families of the fallen.
"Turning to the sons or brothers of the dead, I see an arduous
struggle before you. When a man is gone, all are wont to praise him,
and should your merit be ever so transcendent, you will still find it
difficult not merely to overtake, but even to approach their renown.
The living have envy to contend with, while those who are no longer
in our path are honoured with a goodwill into which rivalry does not
enter. On the other hand, if I must say anything on the subject of
female excellence to those of you who will now be in widowhood, it
will be all comprised in this brief exhortation. Great will be your
glory in not falling short of your natural character; and greatest
will be hers who is least talked of among the men, whether for good
or for bad.” (Par.
10)
With
this he takes his abrupt leave. He cooly informs the people that the
families and children of the lost will be compensated, and curtly
exits. As I shall now.
